Evaluating Theories in Developmental Psychology

Evaluating Theories in Developmental Psychology Michelle Holding A key area studied in developmental psychology is sex and gender. Sex is a biological term which refers to the genetics and DNA which we are born with. Females are born with XX chromosomes and males are born with XY chromosomes. (Hayes 2000, p664) states that sex is the biological quality of the individual, someone is biologically either male or female. Gender is a psychological term which refers to the gender identity a person identifies with, such as masculine or feminine. Are gender is not determined at birth but is learned behaviour. (Hayes 2000, p664) states that gender refers to the social aspects of this distinction, to the behaviour and conduct which the individual engages in as they interact with other people. (Hayes 2000, p18) explains the nature/ nurture debate as an example of determination in psychology. Nature and nurture are two opposing view-points concerned with what causes someone to develop. On one hand naturists see development as arising through innate factors- inherited characteristics. On the other side it is seen through development and learning. The nature perspective explains that we are born this way, with reference to gender, our identity is chosen before we are born it is based on genetics and DNA. The nurture side of the debate argues that we learn our behaviours through the environment, with reference to gender, we learn our gender identity through our environment and social interactions. One theory within developmental psychology is the social learning theory. Within this theory psychologists believe that we learn our behaviours through the environment we are exposed to within our lives. The social learning theory places great importance on observation and reinforcement (Gross 2010). Bandura (1963, cited in Malim Birch, 1998) conducted a study with the aim of seeing if the behaviours of children were reflective of behaviours they had observed. This was a lab experiment, children were separated into two groups. The experimental group was shown video footage of adults behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll. The control group were not shown the Bobo doll. The children were then observed during play with a Bobo doll. Bandura found that the children from the experimental group displayed more aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll than the control group. This study took place within a laboratory which means the experimenters had high control over variables, however this means it has low ecological validity as it is not very true to real life. Another study we looked at within the social learning theory is Smith and Lloyd (1978, cited in Hardy Hayes, 1999). This study was to see if mothers treat a baby differently depending upon the baby being dressed as a boy or girl. A baby was dressed in either girl or boy clothes. The mothers were then asked to describe the child’s behaviour. The results showed that the mothers treated the child in a sex stereotypical way depending on how the child was dressed. This study supports the social learning theory as it shows that parents have an influence on gender roles. This study took place in a controlled environment making it easy to replicate and the experimenters had high control over variables, however this also means the study is low on ecological validity as it is not very true to life. Other psychologists believe we learn our gender identity through the cognitive development theory. Kohlberg (1966) explains the cognitive developmental theory of gender as gender role development is a self-socialising process. This is dependent on the child’s sense of being a male or female. If a child is a boy the child will think I am a boy therefore I want to do boy things and he will gain approval for doing so and find this rewarding. The child will seek out, organise and behave in accordance with the information he has regarding gender roles. Social and cognitive factors are both important In the gender learning process. In this theory Kohlberg believes that gender development happens in three stages. Stage one is known as gender labelling, at this stage children can identify themselves and others as male or female, gender is not seen as stable over time or across superficial physical characteristics. Stage two is known as gender stability, here children recognise that ge nder is stable over time, boys will grow up to be daddies and girls will grow up to be mummies. However the unchanging nature of gender is not yet appreciated. Stage three is the gender constancy stage, this is when children have full appreciation of the permanence of gender over time and across situation. (Banerjee, R. 2005) A study which supports this theory is Slaby and Frey (1975, cited in Banerjee, 2005).The aim of this study was to see if childrens’s attention to same sex models was influenced by their level of gender constancy. Fifty five, two-five year olds were assessed using a series of questions to measure the children at each stage of gender development. The children were then classified as high or low on gender constancy. Several weeks later the children then watched a film with a split screen, male on one side, female on the other, eye contact was measured to determine which model on screen the child watched. They found that the children who had high levels of gender constancy watched the same sex model on the screen. This showed that both cognitive and social factors play a part in gender role development. This study was a lab experiment making it easy to replicate and giving the experimenters high control over variables, however it lacks ecological validity as this is not very true to life. This study is praised for scientifically being able to measure the levels of gender constancy within the children. Other criticisms are that it has low time validity as it was carried out in 1975 the results may not be the same in modern society. Only fifty-five children were used during the experiment which is a relatively small sample size therefore it can be argued that the results can not be generalised to the rest of the population. Within the two theories we have discussed the significant difference is that the social learning theory falls within the nurture approach and the cognitive developmental theory falls within the nature approach. In addition to these 2 theories, the psychodynamic theory looked into the emotional development in relation to gender. With evidence to support all theories it is difficult to determine how we develop our gender roles, however it helps teach the importance of both nature and nurture. Bibliography. Gross, R. (2010). Psychology, the science of mind and behaviour. 6th Ed. Hodder Stoughton: London. Hayes, N. (2000). Foundations of Psychology. 3rd Ed. Thomson: London. Hardy, M Heyes, S. (1999). Beginning Psychology. 5th Ed. Oxford University Press: Oxford Malim, T Birch, A. (1998). Introductory Psychology. Palgrave:Basingstoke. Banerjee, R. (2005). Cognition and gender development. [online] OpenLearn. Available at: http://www.open.edu/openlearn/body-mind/childhood-youth/childhood-and-youth-studies/childhood/cognition-and-gender-development [Accessed 14 Oct. 2014]. Page 1

Living in the Big City

Thao Nguyen02/18/2013 Toefl Prep. Dr. Ray Simple Essay Problem solving is the most important skill in the present day world. We have to deal with problem solving in business, in private lives, and in doing everyday choice. Below, I would like to specify the importance of this most vital skill in the areas mentioned above. First, every business is based on the ability of the owner of the business and his employees to make fast and professional decision.There are many situations in business that may be connected to buying a new product, selling it to the right person, advertising it, or communicating with other businesses for the sake of promoting your own. For example, my friend has a small restaurant. I can see how hectic his life is most of all, I am surprised at the speed with he makes very important decision. Sometimes, these decisions are wrong, but he does not mind. He says he his learning from his mistakes. Obviously, it is absolutely essential to solve the problem in business quickly if you want to survive in a tough competition in present day world.Second, we have to make a lot of personal choices in life, and therefore, we have to learn how to solve a lot of personal problems, too. It is a very difficult thing to make the right decision in love situation. I, for one, am very an emotional person. Due to my emotions, I make quick but wrong decisions. Therefore, I blame myself afterwards for having done or said something without much thinking. I know that I have to work on my ability to think first and to act after that if I want to be successful in problem solving.Third, my life is full of chores. I have to run around doing things, connected with my job, my college work, and my personal duties. For an instance, I have to make decisions every second, what to buy, what to wear, what to say, and how much money to spend. In fact, if I do not solve this problem quickly, I am lost. In conclusion, every one of us needs to do a lot of problem solving every day. We should be smart and calm about our decisions. I hope I will acquire this skill as I am moving along in life. The choice we make dictate the life we live.

Investigatory Project Mosquito Repellent

I. IntroductionA. Background of the StudyMosquitoes are common pests in the tropics they have been known to cause many disease to most people. The real danger of mosquito lie their ability to transmit diseases like yellow fever, malaria, and dengue people have used various instruments control the mosquito problem in homes. The most commonly used chemical insecticides sprays. Most of these can destroy mosquitoes but they can also do serious damage to humans as well. So the researchers decide to make a new change into our lives researchers prefer a natural insecticide in is not only affordable but it is also a health caring not like in chemical it is toxic and it is not environmental friendly in this case our planet earth undergoes a global warming so instead using a chemicals we used a natural ones.B. Significance of the ProjectIt can prevent and use to kill mosquitoes in our house or anywhere it also prevent the insect borne disease like malaria, yellow fever, dengue and many more it is not hazard into our health because its ingredients is finely arranged to make this project in a good phase it has good basis to use for likewise chemical repellent is not good for our health because of the chemicals, chemical is toxic to our health. And it is environment friendly not like the chemical ones not only our health is affected when we use a chemical insect repellent but also our dear mother Earth its chemical release cfc gases (ChloroFluoroCarbon) that traps the heat in our planet and causes global warming.C. Statement of the ProblemIs a natural mosquito repellent as effective and safer to use, commercial mosquito repellents found in markets? Can it be used in long ranges?D. HypothesisThe natural mosquito repellent is more safe and effective than the commercial repellent found in markets because it doesn’t contain chemicals.E. Objectives1. To have an alternative for a chemical insecticides.2. To kill mosquitoes and to prevent diseases coming from mosquitoes tha t results in death.3. To protect your family in the real danger of mosquito like malaria and dengue.F. Scope and LimitationsThis product is not to be used in wide area because it cannot kill all mosquitoes for only one time spraying and of course it is not like the chemical ones in a trial it can kills some of those and the delimitations is it not harmful in our environment because it is an environmental friendly and it cannot affect our health because it is made up of natural ingredients made up of nature product so that it is not harmful.G. Definition of TermsMalaria- an intermittent and remittent fever caused by a protozoan parasite which invades the red blood cells and is transmitted by mosquitoes in many tropical and subtropical regions. Mosquito- a slender long-legged fly with aquatic larvae. The bite of the bloodsucking female can transmit a number of serious diseases including malaria and elephantiasis. Dengue- a debilitating viral disease of the tropics, transmitted by mosq uitoes, and causing sudden fever and acute pains in the joints. Insecticides- a substance used for killing insects.Chemicals- a distinct compound or substance, especially one which has been artificially prepared or purified. Toxic- substance means any chemical or mixture that may be harmful to the environment and to human health if inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through the skin. Organic- Any member of a  large class of chemical compounds whose molecules compound carbon.II. Review of Related LiteratureA. Related LiteratureAccording to blogspot.com , an insect repellent is a substance applied to skin or clothing, other substance it may be in solid form or in liquid form which discourages insects from landing or climbing on that surface. Insect repellent help prevent and control the outbreak of insect borne diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever and other diseases. Pest animals commonly serving as vectors for disease include the insects flea fly and mosquito. Mosquito es have complex methods of detecting hosts and different types of mosquitoes react to different stimuli.Most mosquitoes are active at dawn and dusk but there are also mosquitoes that seek hosts during the day. You can avoid being bitten by making sure you aren’t attracting mosquitoes, using attractants to lure mosquitoes else where, using a repellent, and avoiding actions that diminish the effectiveness of the repellent. It has been claimed that it can be used as a home remedy to help speed recovery from throat or other minor ailments because of it antibiotic properties. Treatment, health benefits & side effects with Science Investigatory Project Review Related Literature About Mosquito Repellent products.Many of the sources come from our Encyclopedia of Natural Health and include relevant health topics. Uses vary, but may include Fighting Bacterial and Viral Infections, and Boost Mental Focus Utilizing Phospholipids and are non-FDA reviewed or approved, natural alternatives, to use for Chemotherapy, and Weakened Immune System. Science Investigatory Project Review Related Literature About Mosquito Repellent products are reviewed below.

Benefits Of Exercising During Pregnancy Essay - 1170 Words

10 Benefits of Exercising During Pregnancy By Lorraine Scapens | Submitted On May 14, 2011 Recommend Article Article Comments Print Article Share this article on Facebook Share this article on Twitter Share this article on Google+ Share this article on Linkedin Share this article on StumbleUpon Share this article on Delicious Share this article on Digg Share this article on Reddit Share this article on Pinterest Expert Author Lorraine Scapens Benefits of Exercising Pregnant There are lots of wonderful benefits that exercise can provide for both you and your baby if you continue to exercise through your pregnancy. Only 5% of pregnant women exercise through their pregnancy. I think this is a very poor statistic especially with all the information available proving that exercising through a pregnancy is perfectly safe for both mum and baby. Pregnant women should be encouraged to exercise moderately through their pregnancies. I believe too many pregnant women are just too sedentary in their daily lives and many pregnancy and birthing complications are occurring due to lack of fitness and strength. If you are healthy, exercise regularly and have a normal uncomplicated pregnancy then there is no reason for you not to exercise through your entire pregnancy. I often find that when you are exercising through your pregnancy everyone from family, friends and work colleagues all think you are crazy and shouldn t be exercising. Show them or tell them all the reasons why youShow MoreRelatedExercising During Pregnancy Has A Range Of Benefits, Including860 Words   |  4 PagesExercising during pregnancy has a range of benefits, including contributing to the chance of a smoother delivery, as well as reducing the risk of gestational diabetes. Even if the changes in your body make it tempting to avoid exercise, consider these benefits and then if your doctor agrees, adopt a suitable exercise regime. 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